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Interactive multimedia and good teaching

Authors: David M. Kennedy and Carmel McNaught

University of Melbourne and La Trobe University, Victoria

Keywords: Interactive, multimedia, teaching, software, authoring tools, financial issues, hardware, creation, design, project management.

Article style and source: Moderated. First electronic publication.

Contents

Introduction

The use of interactive multimedia (IMM) in higher education is increasing because the nature of higher education itself is changing. Students with more diverse academic backgrounds, interests, and motivation now undertake tertiary studies (Australian Vice Chancellors' Committee, 1996). Until recently, most IMM development has focused on issues of the hardware and software tools, or the delivery platform, and the educational design of software has been given only limited consideration. However, we consider the most important factor to be the educational design of the project software. This workshop places interactive multimedia development within an educational context. The focus is on providing an overview of the pragmatic considerations of IMM development. A detailed discussion linking epistemological and pedagogical issues to interactive multimedia development is found in Kennedy & McNaught (1997, In press).

What is interactive multimedia and why use it?

Multimedia or interactive multimedia (IMM) is the use of multiple types of media (audio, video, graphics, animations and text) within a single desktop computer program. The software should support student understanding by providing appropriate and immediate feedback, be integrated into the context of the course of study, and provide a high level of interactivity. The complexity of IMM depends upon the context in which the software is used. The nature and complexity of IMM software changes, depending if it is intended to be used as a stand-alone program or delivered by a network (e.g., WWW). A number of examples are listed below.
  • Small IMM programs may be designed and constructed to enhance learning of particular concepts students find problematic. These have the advantage of being relatively simple to design and construct using low level software packages which require minimal levels of programming and development time. By focusing upon a very small component of the total course, and using it within a very specific context, even small IMM entities may enhance student understanding. One such example is SarcoMotion, a software animation which is used within a specific context (lecture and tutorial) to enhance student understanding of the intricacies of muscle contraction (Fyfe, Fyfe, & Phillips, 1995).
  • Stand-alone IMM software is more complex, more difficult to design and construct, and more expensive in terms of time, money and people than smaller IMM projects. IMM of this type may replace entire courses. For example, ChemCAL (McTigue, Tregloan, Fritze, McNaught, Hassett, & Porter, 1995) has over 70 hours of undergraduate first year chemistry, and was designed to both supplement and replace lectures.
  • IMM can also be involved in teaching courses that are WWW (Web) based. The interactivity of these courses (at present) is low. Basic Web authoring in HTML to produce documents is relatively straight forward and a number of software programs exist which facilitate this process (discussed later). However, the difficulty of developing Web pages increases markedly as the number and complexity of interaction types increases. One of the more important aspects of developing Web-based documents is that (student) learning may be improved simply by providing access to material (content) for those students studying at a distance, or when the student needs it. One very successful example is the teaching of Geology across two widely separated campuses (Hellwege, Gleadow, & McNaught, 1996). The delivery of Web-based courses is an area of growth in the development of IMM courseware. The tools to generate a higher degree of interactivity across the Web are being developed and enhanced very rapidly.
  • Another example of small multimedia projects are those developed by students as part of their coursework. This is a special case, as in general, the IMM products of individual students are not reused or reusable by other students or in future years of the course. The purpose of these programs is not to produce reusable software but to enhance some other aspect of the learning process, such as communication skills, collaborative project development, or improving student motivation and interest (James, Peterson, & Clark, 1996). They can also provide excellent feedback to teachers about how students model the concepts in the course.

Pragmatic issues of IMM design

One of the constraints clearly established in multimedia development is the range of specialist skills required to develop a large, complex IMM project (Dickinson, 1994; Freeman & Ryan, 1995; Phillips, 1997, In press). These include:
  • experience in teaching and educational design (Bain & McNaught, 1996; Beaumont & Brusilovsky, 1995; Kennedy & McNaught, 1996; Laurillard, 1994a; Reeves, 1992b);
  • video and audio skills;
  • programming skills;
  • extensive knowledge of the content domain;
  • interface and graphical design;
  • formative and summative evaluation (Alexander & Hedberg, 1994; Beattie, 1994; Laurillard, 1994b; McNaught, Whithear, & Browning, 1994; Reeves, 1992a); and
  • project management (Phillips, 1997, In press).
The difficulties arise because no individual has all of these skills and acquiring even a sub-set of them requires considerable investments in time and effort. Therefore, developing complex, highly interactive IMM requires a team approach. The assembly of a team to develop software is the task of the project manager-a key position in any project. The role of the project designer is discussed later.

However, interactive multimedia design has matured in the past five years resulting in the development of templates and guides to aid the new developer. Templates have a number of advantages which include:

  • cost-effectiveness;
  • ease of use;
  • clear delivery methods (e.g., CD-ROM, WWW or networked application); and
  • a number of evaluative strategies to ensure quality.
Templates are relatively easy to use; however they do have disadvantages as well, including:
  • developing IMM which has a sameness about it or is not quite appropriate to the task required;
  • a pedagogy of design which may not be flexible enough to suit a range of projects; and
  • the possible production of software which is difficult to maintain and update as courses and the needs of students change.
One of the more useful techniques in the initial stages is brainstorming, mindmapping or concept mapping the knowledge domain. There are a number of software tools available which simplify the task of creating concept maps. A useful software tool is Inspiration (Helfgott, Helfgott, & Hoof, 1994). It is very flexible and creates maps which are easily modified, printed in a variety of sizes and have extensive notes attached to major conceptual ideas. The Knowledge Science Institute is developing a concept mapping tool JMap, which is designed to be used collaboratively across the Web (Flores-Méndez, 1996; Flores-Méndez, 1997). It is a Java (Microsystems, 1996) based system which is platform independent (the software will operate on Macintosh, IBM compatible or Unix platforms). The software will be available in mid-1997 and the source code is available on request to the email address attached to the Universal Resource Locater (URL) in the references.

Projects developed by students may be a cheaper option as suitable software authoring tools are rarely expensive (e.g., HyperStudio); however, the need for computer hardware, graphics scanning devices, and video production still need to be considered.

The educational evaluation of the software, summative or formative, particularly during the design and developmental phases has often been the neglected part of IMM development (Alexander & Hedberg, 1994). Once the equipment has been purchased, programming, graphic design and staff release have been funded, there are often little funds remaining for evaluation. However, evaluation should be a major concern of any new developer if the software is addressing a particular educational problem. How will you know if the software is achieving its goals unless both formative and summative evaluation have been completed?

Technical issues

The technical components of developing IMM are both the most obvious and until recently the issue most focused upon by IMM developers. Broadly speaking, there are two components: the hardware tools and the software tools. The software tools may be further divided into two categories. The first are the software tools for constructing IMM. These are listed in Table 1. The second are the software tools required for digitising and manipulating electronic media and are associated with specific hardware tools. The second set are discussed with their associated hardware tools.

Hardware and associated software tools

While it is possible to run IMM software on a less than state of the art computer, to develop such software you need considerably more modern, faster computers. For the new IMM designer there are generally only two development platforms, the Apple Macintosh Operating System (MacOS) or the Wintel based, Microsoft Windows Personal Computers (PCs). Approximately 54% of IMM titles released on CD-ROM in the world are authored on the Apple Macintosh platform for delivery on either the MacOS platform or the Wintel PC while most of the rest are developed on a Wintel PC for the PC. Other operating systems are the Unix and the Atari platforms. It is not within the scope of this article to discuss these less commonly used (for developing IMM) operating systems. Development hardware, irrespective of the operating system chosen, should have fast CPUs, as much RAM as possible (at least 32 Mb) and significant primary (in the computer) and backup (external hard drive) storage capacity. The latter becomes quite significant if video files are required for a project-one minute of compressed video occupies approximately 10Mb (low quality and/ or small frame size) to around 18Mb (higher quality at one quarter screen size) of disk storage space. However, these figures are general guides only-the technology of video compression and distribution by a variety of electronic means (CD-ROM, World Wide Web) is changing very rapidly.

In addition an IMM project may require:

  • video processing and capture which may include a video camera, video recorder, and some method of editing the video footage (e.g., associated software tools include Media 100®, and Adobe Premiere®);
  • sound recording and capture (e.g., Sound Machine®); and
  • photographic and graphics capture (e.g., Adobe Photoshop®).

Software tools for authoring IMM

There are now many software tools for developing IMM. Table 1 illustrates some of the more common authoring environments. The Metaphor column indicates the fundamental development model for the authoring environment. The types and complexity of student interactions it is possible to incorporate into a project are influenced by the underlying design metaphor of any particular piece of software.

The software authoring tools in Table 1 which have an '*' have additional integrated software programs (SuperCard uses Roadster®, and Director uses Shockwave®) which allow projects created with these tools to have limited interactivity when delivered by using the Web. Table 1 is not intended to be an exhaustive list and an online search on the Web using the keywords 'multimedia' and 'tools' will elicit a large number of products. Once a decision is made regarding the software tools you face added difficulties. One very significant problem is the rapid changes that will occur in both software and hardware while the development is underway, requiring the developer to 'second-guess' what may happen in the near future. In the current climate of computer and software design the competition is so intense that hardware and software lifetimes rarely exceed 6 to 8 months.

New products are continually being brought onto the market, and companies leap-frog each other in the scramble to incorporate enhanced features into their product and improve the company's market share. A simple but familiar example is the not-so-humble word processing package Microsoft Word. Once distributed on four 800 kilobyte floppy disks, a full installation now requires 35 megabytes, but more importantly, Word requires nearly 7 Mb of random access memory (RAM) to operate. The delivery platform for the newly developed IMM software becomes problematic-how much RAM will be required to run the educational software, and what processor (CPU) speed will be required to deliver satisfactory performance for the user? These problems are typical of the software tools and the operating systems.

If consideration must be given to what model of computer will provide adequate performance for the software to operate on (ie. the delivery platform), then an example from the commercial world may illustrate the possible problems. Most developmental times are in the order of a year or more. One product is James Discovers Math by Broderbund Software. This CD-ROM cost approximately $500,000.00 and 18 months to storyboard, program and deliver to the marketplace. In that time, computer hardware and software underwent considerable changes, including the basic operating systems of the major computer vendors.

This very brief overview of some of the technical issues in the design and delivery of IMM is incomplete at best. We have not discussed the needs some projects may have for special video cards for full motion video, networking of software, using intranets or the internet for on-line course delivery, or bandwidth problems when using the internet. However, the technical issues must be addressed by any IMM developer.

Table 1: Software authoring tools
Software tool OS development OS delivery Metaphor
HyperCard MacOS MacOS Card
SuperCard* MacOS MacOS Card
Oracle Media Objects (OMO) MacOS or Wintel PC MacOS or Wintel PC Card
ToolBook Wintel PC Wintel PC Card
AuthorWare MacOS or Wintel PC MacOS or Wintel PC Flow chart
Macromedia Director* MacOS or Wintel PC MacOS or Wintel PC Stage
mTropolis MacOS MacOS or Wintel PC Stage
Quest Wintel PC Wintel PC Flow chart
HyperStudio MacOS MacOS Card
Digital Chisel MacOS MacOS Card

Financial issues

Very often in IMM development in higher education, the driving force may be the financial constraints. These influence the:
  • time available to develop the software and complete the project within a given time period;
  • number of staff (and her or his individual time allotment) that can be allocated to the project;
  • hardware (high-end CPUs, video, photographic, and sound capture) and software tools available to the project;
  • evaluation, formative and summative done before release (cost of staff time); and
  • monitoring and upgrading the software after extensive use.
One of the more important issues to arise when developing IMM is the role of project management. The coordination of any IMM development includes managing the priority of each aspect (for example; graphic design, programming, delivery of content, interface design, and formative evaluation) of the project. It has been estimated that it costs between $25,000 and $50,000 per hour to develop complex, highly interactive IMM, and the development-time to run-time ratio (the D/R ratio) is approximately 200:1 hours respectively (Canale & Wills, 1993).

The project manager must determine the cost and effort required verses the possible outcomes, scheduling events to maximise equipment and personnel resources, and keeping the entire process on track. It is a full-time position in large projects and often costs twice as much as originally budgeted for (Canale & Wills, 1993). Above all, the project manager is concerned with delivering a quality IMM program on time and within budget. Whether or not a formal responsibility is defined, the need for a person to take overall responsibility for the project is critical to the project's success, irrespective of the issues discussed in this section of the article. Financial issues impact on any project and are interrelated very strongly to the other issues discussed in this workshop.

Time issues

Typically the developmental times for IMM in universities are approximately 100 to 500 hours for one hour of software. For individuals undertaking a project, the time taken is at the high end of the range because of the inevitable need to learn new skills. Typically, the IMM developer in higher education has other responsibilities, including a teaching load, marking and assessment, and a research profile to maintain. Therefore, much of the multimedia development time is outside normal working hours-evenings, and weekends. The multimedia developer needs to consider how much time can be devoted to the project and how this will affect their family and personal life. The time required will always be greater than first estimated, particularly for novice developers.

However, multimedia that has the potential to have effective educational outcomes demands a user-friendly interface, interactivity to engage the students actively in the learning process, a variety of navigational opportunities to cater for individual student learning styles, and appropriate assessment and feedback. The majority of new developers wish to do 'the best they can' and may find it very difficult to reconcile the time and personal demands of producing software that has the potential to transform students' conceptual beliefs.

Educational elements of IMM design

Interactive multimedia can address good teaching and learning practices which aim to engage students in active rather than passive learning, through a transformative rather than a pre-emptive or expository model of design. In Table 2, we have attempted to show how different conceptions of teaching and learning are likely to lead to decisions which result in the inclusion of particular design elements in an IMM project. The table is constructed by focussing on each of Ramsden's (1992) five aspects of teaching related to effective student learning and the type of design elements which might be incorporated into IMM depending upon the designer's conceptions of teaching and learning.

How a particular interactive multimedia program utilises the elements outlined in Table 2 will depend upon:

  • the educational objectives which guide the design of the software;
  • the software tools chosen to construct the IMM; and
  • the context in which the software will be used.
Table 2: Relationships between criteria for effective teaching and modes of IMM design
Criteria for effective teaching

(Ramsden, 1992)

Didactic or transmission modes of IMM design
Pre-emptive modes of IMM design

(Bain & McNaught, 1996)
Transformative or conversational modes of IMM design

(Laurillard, 1993)
Good teaching practice
  • showing respect and concern for students
  • sharing the love of your subject with students
  • being able to make the material to be taught both interesting and stimulating
  • engaging students at their level of comprehension
  • explaining the content using clear and appropriate language
  • improvising and adapting to new demands,
  • learning from students and other sources (e.g., journals, colleagues) about the effects of teaching and how it can be improved
The traditional lecture is often characterised by poor teaching practice. While individual lecturers are passionate about their subject, student learning may be passive rather than active, adaptation to new ideas can be generally slow and student engagement can be minimal. IMM designed within a didactic model may have:
  • the content and sequencing prescribed by the lecturer
  • relatively little student activity-books on screens
  • minimal credence given to alternative models of representing knowledge; one right answer
Pre-emptive models of IMM design acknowledge the student as fundamental to the design of the program. The use of the 'better explanation' is a defining feature.
  • use of appropriate language
  • on-line help and glossary
  • formative evaluation in design process
  • multiple perspectives of concepts
  • multiple paths through the software or a greater degree of student control
  • design of animations, etc. based on misconceptions
  • adaptive hypermedia (navigation, presentation)
  • use of life-world experiences of student
  • attempts to actively engage students in modes of problem solving
  • good use of visual and audio material
Transformative indicates an iterative approach to learning through the processes of discussion, adaptation, iteration and reflection. The challenge is to design IMM to respond to the different learning styles and needs of the students. A suitable context in which the IMM can be utilised is essential to the design. Most of the elements listed under the 'pre-emptive' column are also appropriate here. Others are:
  • encouraging development of a personal perspective
  • questions aimed at conceptual change (conflict)
  • tasks which allow students' to build their own representations
  • students negotiating tasks
  • use of communication technologies for discussion and negotiation
  • linkages to other parts of the T/L context in which IMM is embedded
  • good use of visual and audio material, often associated with multiple representations of concepts
Emphasis on independence
  • providing opportunities for students to become more independent
  • implementing teaching techniques that require students to learn actively, act responsibly and operate cooperatively.
There is little or no opportunity for students to be independent in this model of IMM design.
  • only one navigational path
  • passive learning, characterised by click-and-point interfaces
  • minimal learner control
There is considerable effort made to engage the learner in active learning.
  • IMM provides alternative paths for navigation which attempt to address different learning styles in students
  • activities involving problem solving may be present
  • software may be designed to be used in groups rather than with individuals
The focus is to make students metacognitive about their own learning processes.
  • the content may be sequenced by the student
  • the software is integrated with a specific context which promotes an iterative discussion process
  • cooperative problem solving
Clear goals
  • being committed to explicating what must be understood, the level of understanding and why this level is appropriate,
  • valuing understanding rather than rote learning
In traditional lectures the syllabus outline was generally provided however the level of understanding and why it is required were not made clear.
  • IMM focuses on browsing rather than engagement in relevant tasks
  • statements that understanding is valued and desired; however, the designs don't foster such outcomes
Active efforts to integrate the goals with the content of the IMM.
  • hypertext links from text, exercises and interactions to the syllabus outline
  • good explanation of goals
  • a clearly articulated desire for more than surface learning
  • on-line frequently asked questions
The student is engaged in the shared determination of the goals of the academic content.
  • engagement in construction of relationships linking goals to academic content
  • hypertext links from text, exercises and interactions to the syllabus outline
  • relationships between prior, current and future course directions are explicated
Appropriate assessment
  • applying appropriate assessment methods, the purpose of which are clearly understood
  • giving feedback of the highest quality on student work
Early CFL was characterised by either multiple choice or one word answers.
  • predefined (algorithmic) relationships between student responses and feedback, or
  • feedback is limited to yes/no or right/wrong answers, or
  • limited feedback (e.g., a statement of the algorithmic answer to the problem)
This mode focuses on multiple methods of assessment but is still characterised by multiple choice or one word answers.
  • problems related to the 'better explanations' provided
  • immediate feedback
Assessment is focused upon determining the level of understanding and explicating personal perspectives representing the academic content.
  • extended answers which may be self-assessed from a number of models of expert answers
  • multiple modes of assessment
  • the student may negotiate the modes of assessment with the academic
Appropriate workload
  • focusing on key concepts, and students' alternative frameworks, rather than on just covering the ground
The general process is on delivery of the course and covering the material. In IMM this results in
  • only including the prescribed academic content
  • no allowance for negotiated timelines
The focus is on addressing students' prior knowledge and misconceptions rather than just covering the ground.
  • the workload is adjusted. IMM is not merely an adjunct to conventional lectures, tutorials or practicals
The focus is on key academic concepts in consultation with students.
  • outcomes and timelines are negotiated and students are focused on developing relationships between key concepts within an appropriate time period
  • flexible use of communication technologies to achieve balanced workload

The elements of design suggested in the right hand columns of Table 2 reflect different levels of engagement by the learner. The challenge for IMM developers is to reflect on their own views about teaching and learning. A number of questions arise.

  • Which model of learning is congruent with their educational objectives?
  • To what extent might developers wish to shift their educational views?
  • What are the implications for course and materials design that any shift in teaching strategies might have?
For example, cooperative problem-solving and negotiated assessments necessarily impact greatly on any teaching/learning context. Laurillard (1996) has proposed how current university academic programs may be reorganised to incorporate IMM. Her intention is to enable students to become more actively engaged in their learning. The reorganisation of the course shifts the emphasis from attending lectures to engaging in activities (which include interactive multimedia) to promote discussion and reflection amongst students. IMM now offers tools to assist teachers in making educational shifts if they wish to.

Table 2 is presented in the hope that it provides a tool for the educational component of the design of IMM software. It attempts to relate the educational perspectives of the designer to elements which might be incorporated as a result of those beliefs into any particular project. Therefore, a major purpose of the table is to provide teachers and lecturers with the facility to match the desired educational outcomes of an IMM project with the elements which have the greatest potential to achieve those outcomes. For example, studies from many institutions over a period of many years 'have drawn attention to the wide gap between the rhetoric describing the qualities lecturers say they want in their students' responses, and the tasks they set' (Biggs, 1989, p. 15). If a global understanding of a topic of study is to be gained by students, with the ability to apply their knowledge in unfamiliar and novel ways, then choosing elements of IMM design that focus on presenting facts and narrowly testing for those facts is unlikely to achieve those goals.

Summary

Teaching and learning occur within a particular context (a particular subject or a faculty, lectures, tutorials, practical classes and field trips). IMM development should enhance learning opportunities for students within the total context of their studies rather than becoming simply an extra component for already burgeoning courses.

From a personal perspective, being involved in designing IMM has changed the way we view teaching and learning. For us it has been a metacognitive experience which has altered our perceptions of how teaching strategies may influence learning and how knowledge may be constructed.

Interactive multimedia development is a field undergoing rapid change, not unlike institutions of higher education themselves. The challenge is to take what we know constitutes good teaching and learning and enhance the educational experience for students by constructing software that promotes active learning, engages each student in a manner consistent with her or his learning style, and matches the educational objectives with the teaching and learning strategies.

Glossary

CD-ROM Compact Disk - Read Only Memory. Data is stored digitally on a compact disk and can only be read from the disk. There are moves to develop CD-ROM/ WWW hybrid systems with large files (e. g., video) stored on the CD-ROM and relevant text material (e.g., course deadlines) to be available on-line via links to the WWW.
CPU Central Processing Unit, is the `brain' of the computer and runs the computer operating system (OS) and the software used by the computer user.
ftp File Transfer Protocol, a method of transferring large files and software across the internet. FTP is a form of URL and files may be accessed by using a WWW browser.
html Hyper text markup language, a computer scripting language that enables documents with text, video, graphics and pictures to be viewed through a Web browser. The system is almost platform independent and the degree of interactivity supported is increasing rapidly.
Hypertext Hypertext describes the dynamic linkages in IMM or Web pages which are activated by a single mouse click, from words, pictures, graphics or phrases to other text, graphics, or pictures either in the same document or elsewhere. It is particularly useful for constructing glossaries and links to tables of contents and course objectives.
IMM Interactive multimedia, the use of multiple media-sound, video, graphics, animations, text, photographs-on a single desktop computer which enables the user to interact with the media in some way.
MacOS The proprietary computer operating system that provides the operating instructions for the Apple Macintosh computer platform-which uses a CPU from the Motorola company. The MacOS clones in the marketplace include Power Computing, StarMax, M*Power, and Umax SuperMac.
Mb Megabytes, the number of millions of bytes of information stored on a hard disk or other storage medium. (Also, see RAM).
oop Object orientated programming is a high level programming language which allows the assigning of inheritance properties to classes of objects.
PC Personal Computer, first used by International Business Machines (IBM) to describe a desktop computer, now synonymous with computers which use the Wintel or DOS (Disk Operating System) operating system.
RAM Random Access Memory, the dynamic memory (usually in Megabytes) of a computer CPU used to run the computer operating system and the software.
ROM Read Only Memory, fixed or static memory in a computer usually assigned to use by the operating system of a computer. (See also CD-ROM).
URL Uniform Resource Locator, the descriptor used by a Web browser which specifies the computer address for down-loading WWW pages from the internet (e.g., see Broderbund above).
Wintel An amalgamation of the words, Windows and Intel. The CPU for Windows based computers is a processor made by the Intel company-the Pentium. Intel provides the CPU for all Windows based PCs.
Web See WWW
WWW World Wide Web, the description for the interconnection of computers all over the world which allow global communication in the form of WWW pages, email and file transfer. The WWW facilitates exchange of information between computers connected to the system. It is now simply referred to as the Web. To use it you need WWW browser software such as Netscape Communicator®, Apple Macintosh Cyberdog®, or Microsoft Internet Explorer®.

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This workshop was adapted from Kennedy, D. M. & McNaught, C. (1997, In press). Principles of good teaching and interactive multimedia design. ITALICS pamphlet series, Melbourne: Academic Development Unit, La Trobe University.

About the authors

David M. Kennedy
Multimedia Education Unit
The University of Melbourne
Parkville, 3052
Melbourne , Australia

Email: D.Kennedy@meu.unimelb.edu.au

Carmel McNaught
Academic Development Unit
La Trobe University
Bundoora, 3083
Melbourne, Australia

Email: C.McNaught@latrobe.edu.au

Copyright © David Kennedy and Carmel McNaught, 1997. For uses other than personal research or study, as permitted under the Copyright Laws of your country, permission must be negotiated with the author. Any further publication permitted by the author must include full acknowledgement of first publication in ultiBASE (http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au). Please contact the Editor of ultiBASE for assistance with acknowledgement of subsequent publication.
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