Enhancing the Effectiveness of Research and Research Supervision Through Reflective Practice

Keywords: Reflective practice; research supervision; case studies; research education and training

Abstract

Reflective practice as one of key capabilities for professional practice is emphasized in today’s higher education. Application of the concept of reflective practice to research supervision is a very challenging task. The aim of the study is two-fold: to explore ways of incorporating reflective practice into the supervisory process, and to identify issues relating to the reflective practice in undertaking research and research supervision. This study draws upon empirical and theoretical evidence from the existing literature and case studies of research project students engaged in personal reflection in research, compounded with the author’s own experience of reflective practice. back

Introduction

What is learning and what are the roles of learners and instructors? The answers to these fundamental questions on learning and teaching have kept changing in the constantly changing dynamic of theory, practice, context and values. In the perspective of reflective practice,

Moreover, reflective activities prompt challenging questions, stimulate interest, and encourage the articulation and critical assessment of personal beliefs. The relationship between instructors and learners is a partnership and the instructor shares responsibility for learning with the learner (Sullivan and Glanz 2000).

The concept of reflective practice has a long history and can be traced back to John Dewey (1916 cited in Richardson 1990) in the early 20^th century. He suggested that a moral individual would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon the actions and their consequences. His work presented a variety of conceptual issues and prompted different theoretical orientations to the nature of reflective thinking. Donald Schõn (1983) in his The Reflective Practitioner set out the origins of reflective practice in a theoretical stance that has underpinned the research on reflective learning and teaching for nearly two decades.

Reflective practice as one of key capabilities for professional practice is emphasized in line with student-focused and capability-driven curriculum in today’s tertiary education. Reflective practice is defined as an ability to reflect on experiences, to employ conceptual frameworks, and to relate these to similar and dissimilar contexts to inform and improve future practice. Helping students to develop reflective practice becomes one of the central agendas in all course development and teaching (RMIT 2002).

Application of the concept of reflective practice to research supervision is a very challenging task because traditionally, academic supervision is a lightly researched area (Brockbank and McGill 1998) and rigorous research that links reflective practice to research and research supervision is even less known in terms of theories and practice (Fook 1996, Holbrook and Johnson 2000). This study intends to contribute to the development of knowledge of this under-researched but very important realm. The aim of the study is two-fold: to explore ways of incorporating reflective practice into the supervisory process, and to identify issues and problems relating to the reflective practice in undertaking research and research supervision.

This study draws upon empirical and theoretical evidence from the existing literature and case studies of research project students who were engaged in personal reflection in research, compounded with the author’s own experience of research supervision. Following this section which overviews the origin, content and application of reflective practice, a theoretical discussion of implications of reflective practice for research supervision is presented. After that, the author makes a proposal on how to apply reflective practice to research supervision process. This paper winds up with a critical reflection on the issues and problems that may be raised in the implementation of reflective practice.back

Implications of Reflective Practice for Research Supervision

Research supervision is a process of fostering and enhancing learning, research and communication at the highest level (Laske and Zuber-Skerritt 1996). Connell (1985) maintained that research supervision is the most advanced level of teaching in the educational system. The supervisory process is crucial to the success of research students and certainly complex, subtle, pivotal and responsible (Conrad 1999, Delamont et al. 1997). Although there have been calls for the conceptualization of research supervision as a teaching/learning process, there is still a tendency to equate it with research training and with the research responsibilities of the academic role (Johnston 2000). Developing research candidates as capable researchers is the primary goal of research supervision (Down, Martin and Bricknell 2000). In the current and future knowledge-based economy and the society, technological and scientific developments play a key role. Information and communication technology, networks, international competition and knowledge intensive products and services dominate economic activities (Beijerse 2000). Research education and training is supposed to be the development of students as competent knowledge workers and knowledge managers (Zhao 2002). The changing scenario of research supervision reinforces the need for developing reflective practice to enhance the effectiveness of research education and training as some literature shows that reflective practice has been successfully applied to teacher education and social studies (Fook 1996, Holbrook and Johnson 2000).

Research supervisors should be going through, intentionally or unintentionally, a reflection process in which they reflect on their own current and past experiences in undertaking research when providing students with research advice. The intention of this study is to go beyond the unintentional or unaware use of reflective practice to an explicit and intentional reflective practice in research supervision. In other words, both single and double loop learning approaches are needed for applying reflective practice to research supervision. In Argyris’ terms (1998), the crucial distinction between single loop and double loop learning is the ability to reflect critically on one’s own behavior or looking inward, and then change the way he/she acts (double-loop learning) and the ability to solve problems in the external environment when they occur (single-loop learning). Based upon the nature of research supervision process and general theories on reflective practice, the author elaborates further on the implications of reflective practice from the three aspects which include:

In the concept of reflective practice, the relationship between students and supervisors is reciprocal in nature and a two-way process, which requires mutuality, empathy and trust (Sullivan and Glanz 2000). While learning is the ultimate responsibility of the students, supervisors take multiple, overlapping and mutually reinforcing roles as a learning mentor to help students reflect on and in their research. The relationship is crucial in the process of research supervision. Establishing a right match and maintaining an effective working relationship hold the key to success of research projects and theses. Reflective processes are likely to work better in generating multiple perspectives in a group setting where students have the opportunity to share their experience and insights about their research. So, a flexible structure of research supervision facilitates and enhances reflective practice. With the overall growth of postgraduate enrolment and more diversity of the students’ background, today’s practice of research supervision turns to be more flexible and more mixed-mode (Evans and Person 2000). In terms of supervision structure, more flexible supervision arrangements to supplement the conventional single-supervisor structure have been established over the past decade. For example, a supervisory group structure. This model embodies a fundamental change in theories and practices in research education and training. Under this structure, students are involved in the process of providing guidance to each other and sharing access to faculty resources in a group setting (Conrad, Perry and Zuber-Skerritt 1992). Empirical studies show that the non-traditional supervision models have been effectively used to complement the traditional ones. Burnett’s research on the trial of the “Collaborative Cohort Model” indicated that students developed a greater breadth of knowledge and a variety of skills including research skills and generic skills through sharing and interaction with fellow students about their research experiences within a collaborative framework. The research also showed that the quality of dissertation and the completion rate of students were enhanced (Burnett 1999).

To supervisors, providing supervision is both a learning and a mentoring process. On the one hand, in the process, supervisors learn to know the area being researched, learn to provide students with appropriate supervision, and learn to be an effective supervisor in terms of Delor’s learning framework (Delor 1996). By consciously engaging in critical reflection on their strengths and weaknesses in the process, supervisors are able to identify and address issues and problems in their supervisory practice and enhance the practice consciously and continuously. On the other hand, supervisors engage students explicitly in reflection on their prior experiences, their career goals and their limitations, and help them to construct their own knowledge in undertaking research, namely, exploring and developing specific research skills and areas of research interest. It is a popular practice in research education and training that students choose a research topic that is closely associated with their past or present professional and/or personal experiences.

Moreover, by intentional reflective dialogue, Brockbank and McGill (1998) mean that the dialogue is an explicit act, is reflective, and enables critically reflective learning which engages learners at the edge of their knowledge, their sense of self and the world as experienced by them. In research supervision, the dialogue involves counseling skills like listening, responding, questioning, challenging, and offering empathy. Supervisors master and develop these skills through actively engaging themselves in reflective dialogue. back

How to integrate reflective practice into research supervision? To answer this question, we need to look at the primary and general tasks of research supervisors, which include:

Incorporating reflective practice in each of these tasks requires supervisors to be systematically reflective throughout the entire supervisory process, taking reflection as a fundamental means to achieve research quality, completion rates and career goals of students.

Selecting potential students is the initial stage of the supervisory process. A supervisor needs to reflect on his/her strengths and weaknesses to make sure there is a fit between a student’s need and the supervisor’s and department’s capacity to meet the need. The capacity may include the supervisor’s adequate disciplinary knowledge in the field of study, his/her command of the methodological approach to the project to be undertaken, and the time and other resources available. Asking reflective questions about oneself in regards to his/her capacity helps a supervisor to make the right decision from the very start of the supervisory journey.

Providing academic guidance in relation to various aspects of research process is the key role of a supervisor. Ways of providing academic guidance may vary in accordance with the structure of supervision, that is, one-to-one or group supervision as shown in Section 2.0, and the nature of supervision, that is, transformative or reproductive supervision. Reflective practice promotes transformative learning in which students not only complete their research projects but also become competent researchers and knowledge workers. In reflective practice, supervisors reflect on and deploy their own research experience in providing academic guidance and act as a learning mentor to students. By engaging in reflective practice, supervisors empower students to challenge and be critical about established theoretical values and their own and other peers’ research progress. Providing academic guidance by giving timely feedback to students also promotes reflective practice through engaging students to reflect on their progress, good or bad. By asking for students’ feedback or self-evaluation, supervisors are able to learn and address students’ needs and expectations. Through the two-way feedback such as this, both the supervisor’s and the student’s expectations are continually reviewed, assessed and evaluated.

During the research journey, in particular in the long doctorate research journey, students may encounter methodological difficulties in research, such as isolation, career or family problems and etc. Supervisors’ pastoral care and support is crucial. The research by Brown and Atkins (1988 in Brockbank and McGill 1998) found that structured supervision with emotional warmth was more effective than emotional distance and liberality. Intentional reflective dialogue between supervisors and students and between fellow students is vital in helping students overcome their professional and personal difficulties in the research process. Attending, referral, listening with empathy, reflecting back, and so on, are all needed in intentional reflective dialogue. Introducing students to collegial and scholarly community within the faculty and outside is also an integral part of the pastoral support.

At the earlier stage of the research journey, getting to know students and assessing their expectations are absolutely necessary. The primary task of supervisors at this stage is to help students to make a viable and high quality research design. Following that, effective project management and time management skills become increasingly important as data collection and analysis go on. Supervisors need to maintain regular contact with students, give timely and constructive feedback, encourage and motivate students to move on and monitor their progress closely. They should offer help if an academic or a personal crisis happens. At the final stage of the supervisory process, supervisors should be able to monitor the final production and presentation of students’ research, locate examiners, provide career advice and assist with publication. Moreover, it is imperative that throughout the research process supervisors ensure research alignment, that is, alignment of research questions, methodology and empirical data. The outcome of this process is the successful completion of a (higher) degree or a project. This has become the most important performance indicator of research supervision in terms of government funding policies (Nelson, 2002).

Reflective practice can serve as a key role in managing the research process. In reflective practice, “the first stage is to identify a problematic situation; the second is to reflect on the problem or experience; the third is to consider alternate ways of thinking and acting; and the fourth is to test the re-conceptualized behavior and assumption” (Sullivan and Glanz 2000 p67). As illustrated above, students face challenges, difficulties and problems in the entire research process. The successful completion of a research project or thesis is often an outcome of successfully getting through a number of the reflection cycles as encapsulated by Sullivan and Glanz. It is a continuous reflection and improvement process by both supervisors and students. For both supervisors and students, reflection is a means of observing, analyzing, considering and re-conceptualizing their research experience in every aspect and at every stage of research and research supervision. back

Case Studies

The author has been working as a research supervisor for years. Upon reflection on her own supervisory experience, the author found that intentional reflective dialogue through discussing with students their experience and progress helps to clarify confusion, generate a more specific and effective approach to research, and develop students’ self-confidence through sharing the hardships of research with them. For example, in conducting literature review for their research, students are encouraged to undertake critical reflection on the theories and empirical data covered in the literature through drawing upon their prior learning and working experiences and cross-checking evidence. The author encouraged students to reflect on their workplace experiences, in particular the problematic experiences, to develop a research question (problem) which is within their interest and expertise. The author found that students perform better and benefit more if the research topic is relevant, interesting and in their expertise areas. In this way, their research process is actually an opportunity for critical reflection upon their experience, and their reflective process is actually a learning experience as well.

The following two case studies were drawn from two students’ reflections on their own research experience. The reflections reveal their mixed feelings of uncertainty, frustration, challenge and accomplishment in the research process. Most importantly, the case studies show that the students concerned improved their understanding of research and enhanced their research skills through their critical reflection.

My thesis project was my first research undertaking and provided me with an interesting landscape of new experiences, insights and learning.

The process of conducting the research project at first was a bit intimidating because I had never done one before and I had nothing to draw from. The way that I usually approach something completely foreign to me is to immerse myself in it and read, discuss and analyze it, which is how I approached my research project.

As I moved from step to step of the project, I found that I became more at ease with the process and became more aware of its intricacies in tandem. I found one of the most interesting aspects of the research, likely because I was using qualitative research, was how I interpreted the data as it emerged through each individual interview. New and interesting perspectives seemed to rise with each interview as did themes and patterns. The ongoing analysis of the data was one of the most exciting aspects of the research, keeping my enthusiasm peaked even when the results and findings of my research were personally disappointing.

The following are some specific reflections on how some of the process of the research might have been reconstructed. In hindsight, I might have designed some of the questions differently. The interviews may have produced more information if at least one question was specifically asked if “they would use the service if it was available and if so why and if not why”. This question was implied and was discussed with most of the interviewees but a direct question may have been more appropriate.

As a novice interviewer, I felt that I became more adept at the process with each additional interview. It is not felt that the information would have necessarily been different or presented different outcomes but may have included more depth as to the origins or reasons of the subjects’ opinions.

Overall, I would classify my experience as quite good. Probably what I found most engaging was the interactions with the respondents during the interviews. Interviewing is a skill, which I’m sure can be enhanced but is likely an intuitive skill as well. I found the challenge of keeping the interview on track, probing for richer insight and “reading between the lines” of the information that emerged incredibly fascinating. I was challenged to reflect on myself, the respondent and the process for optimum value during this project and I think it offered me personal growth and insight into myself, others and how I work.

(The following is an account of personal reflection of a student who was doing an action research in an organization using reflective practice as a data collection and analysis approach.)

In my reflection journal, depending on my mood, I either just write a chronological description of my day or days or I can just reflect on one incident during that day/week that stands out in my mind. Then I reflect on why that incident should stand out in my mind and what effect it had on me and on the other participants of that incident.

Sometimes, I come across something that I think may be relevant to my research thesis and I'll spend a lot of time just reflecting on that. For example, a couple of weeks into my research one of my participants presented me with a cut-out of a paragraph from a book. He did not elaborate on the meaning of the paragraph but it was a very nice piece of writing about seeing 'truths' differently. I took this and pasted it into my journal and reflected on some possible intentions behind such a gesture and how this affects my understanding of this participant, the context of his actions and the impact that my presence has had on this individual and thus, on the research.

Last week I pretty much hit an all time low in terms of how I was feeling about the research. I was not feeling very productive and was getting a bit negative because of the things that were going on in the organization. So I took myself 'out' of the research mode and just spent a few days reading back on previous journal entries and on my research notes and reflecting on what it all means and reminding myself of what I'm here to do. Particularly, I reflected on the difficulty of separating oneself in the sense of having to be a 'detached' observer on the one hand and yet, being drawn into the daily events of the workplace just because you're there. That is, for how long can any of us remain empathetically neutral without letting events that we see and hear about affect us as human beings? For an action researcher this is often a major problem and that's why having skills in reflective techniques are so critical to the success of the research.

Basically, reflection for me involves just some quiet space and lots of letting the emotions run riot. I don't stop whatever comes to mind and I try not to belittle anything that I may be feeling. Once the 'flow' stops then I begin to look at each of those ideas, emotions, feelings and thoughts separately and almost at arms length. It's like trying to hold out one thought at arms length and staring at it from every angle until I think I actually understand the full intent of the thought in the most intimate way. This is almost an oxymoron within itself but for me, reflection is that critical analysis of thoughts and feelings where I need to be separated from it in order to become more intimate with it. Not as easy as it sounds. back

Advantages and Limitations of Reflective Practice

As shown in this paper, reflective practice has a number of advantages that are conducive to effective educational and research practices including research supervision. Reflective practice represents a new idea of teaching and learning and a paradigm shift from the traditional focus of the subject being taught to a focus of learners and learning by experience and by doing. It provides a situation of learning which is owned and controlled by learners. It enables learners to build on their previous experiences and to incorporate new learning. Reflective processes encourage multiple perspectives to be generated when collaborative reflection takes place.

Brockbank and McGill’s study (1998) suggests that reflective practice encouraged deeper levels of learning. The capacity to engage in reflective practice has become one of the means of enhancing the quality of the educational and research processes. As learning involves partnership between teachers and students and between fellow students, reflective practice benefits the partnerships through reflective dialogue. Consciously engaging in reflective practice enables teachers to learn from their practice and to consciously improve their practice. By reflecting, they have the opportunity to uncover and articulate their practice with an intention to learn from the reflection. That is reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action (Schõn 1983). Making reflective practice accessible to students enables them to be more conscious of how they are learning and thereby promote critically reflective learning.

As far as research supervisors are concerned, reflective practice helps them to think back on their supervisory experiences and to adjust and extend their supervision to their students in subsequent sessions. In this regard, reflective practice promotes continuous improvement in the quality and effectiveness of research supervision. To students, critical reflective practice allows them to see their strengths and weaknesses in knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior in their research process and to make conscious improvement. The two students’ reflections shown above are good examples for critical reflective practice. Constantly reflecting on their work, students are able to align their research methodology with research questions and aims of their research. Moreover, reflective practice enables both supervisors and students to share their experiences and thoughts, which may strengthen their relationship and overcome hurdles through dialogue.

However, in spite of the advantages and benefits that reflective practice is likely to produce, issues and problems are likely to be raised in the implementation of reflective practice. Reflective practice may restrict the growth of creativity and innovation as it attempts to replicate and reconstruct one’s past experience. People learn through determining their future actions, either by continued exploitation of their existing activities or by changing their actions to search for better rewards (March 1991). Reflective practice emphasizes the former, that is, learning by exploiting the existing experience, rather than making complete or non-incremental change in their future action. In the current economy and the turbulent environment, what we need is constant innovation in a world of constant change. Innovation obviously underpins the quality of our students’ research. The fundamental mission of research supervision is to foster the ability to innovate and to make original contributions to existing knowledge. back

In Conclusion

As discussed in this paper, reflective practice can be incorporated in research and research supervision to enhance the effectiveness of research supervision because it fosters a reflective inquiry process which is beneficial to both supervisors and students. However, questions are also raised about implementing educational reflective practice. A systematic and critical approach to reflection is pivotal in reflective practice. This author also maintains that the development of reflective practice should be combined with the development of other capabilities in teaching and learning, such as responsive practice, information management, environmental and international perspectives. Students need those multiple capabilities and skills to achieve their career goals and to compete in today’s complex environment. back

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to thank my students for their support in engaging themselves with the experimentation of reflective practice in teaching and learning. Special thanks go to Ms Lisa Morales and Ms Holly Dinh for their kind contribution to writing of this paper.

I also wish to acknowledge the help in preparing this paper received from the UltiBASE reviewer who reviewed the paper who reviewed the paper more than once and assisted me with corrections and suggestions. back

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About the authors

Dr Fang Zhao
Faculty of Management,
Business Faculty
RMIT University, Australia.

email: fang.zhao@rmit.edu.au

Copyright © Fang Zhao, 2003. For uses other than personal research or study, as permitted under the Copyright Laws of your country, permission must be negotiated with the author. Any further publication permitted by the author must include full acknowledgement of first publication in ultiBASE (http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au). Please contact the Editor of ultiBASE for assistance with acknowledgement of subsequent publication.

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