In search of cybercarrots and other pre-service teachers' experiences of self-paced language learning software

Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Australia.

Keywords: University of Tasmania, pre-service teacher, educational software, language learning software.

Article style and source : Peer Reviewed. Original ultiBASE publication. Paper originally presented at the Seventh International Literacy and Education Research Network (LERN) Conference on Learning, RMIT University, Melbourne, 5-9 July 2000.

Contents

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Background context
• Factors impacting on foreign language learning within non face-to-face programs
  • Skills
  • Knowledge
  • Confidence and motivation
  • A conceptual model
• Searching for key components to enhance language learning
• Perceptions of the pre-service teachers
• Conclusion
• References

Abstract

This report describes findings of a small-scale Tasmanian study involving pre-service primary teachers who wanted to begin or refresh their learning of either French, German, Japanese or Indonesian. Aware that commercially-produced CD-ROM language learning software was available as a 'quick fix', and doubtful that successful language learning could occur entirely through CD-ROM use, the pre-service primary teachers reported their experiences in using such software.

These highly motivated pre-service teachers, who wanted to learn a language for personal benefit or in order to teach a foreign language upon graduation, elected to take part in the study. The language learning task was undertaken in addition to the regular assessment requirements in a Curriculum Studies unit. Data were collected from a total of 14 participants through a survey and informal interview. An e-mail journal was also completed by two of the participants.

The perceptions and experiences of these pre-service teachers whilst using the software (on themes of user-friendliness, self-pacing, CD-ROM as teaching tool, learning strategies and motivation) are discussed in this paper. Also included are perceptions of their achievements and reasons given on decisions to complete the program or discontinue.

But why 'cybercarrots'? A 'carrot' within the language learning program is a component mentioned by one participant as being highly necessary to maintain motivation whilst using the software.

Introduction

The debate over the best methods for foreign language education has continued throughout the 20^th century and predominantly since the late 1950s (Met & Galloway, 1992, p. 852). It is well recognised that '...one variable dominates all others in mediating the success...' [of a foreign language program]. That is the teacher' (Clyne, Jenkins, Chen, Tsokalidou and Wallner, 1995, p. 178; and ALLC, 1996). Related research has focused on reasons for foreign language learning, grammatical and communicative competencies, characteristics of 'successful' foreign language learners and the role of multimedia in foreign language education (Met & Galloway, 1992). As teachers look for ways to best utilise multimedia in language education, questions arise on issues such as effectiveness and risks.

This paper reports on small-scale research undertaken in 1999 to determine whether motivated pre-service teacher education students without a recognised proficiency in a LOTE could utilise commercially available CD-ROM foreign language learning software and self-pace their learning. They would either begin or refresh their foreign language studies in the hope of adding a foreign language proficiency to their teaching repertoire upon graduation. Having reservations about the claims that CD-ROM foreign language learning software could ‘instruct’ beginner learners, my colleague and I undertook a review of twenty one commercially produced software packages which claimed to teach foreign languages to beginners. Perceptions were then sought from pre-service teachers who trialed the software to establish whether such a multimedia learning tool was a suitable way for them to self-pace their study to learn some basic foreign language skills which would be used in their later teaching careers. Pre-service teachers reported their perceptions of motivational components utilised in the software's instructional design. Also 'exposed' were their inherent beliefs about language learning. top

Background context

Pre-service teachers studying for a Bachelor of Education degree in the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania spend a minimum of four years in this teacher-

training degree program. The researcher, involved in the training of LOTE teachers (1996-2000), has found that less than 10% of students enter the Bachelor of Education program with a proficiency level in a foreign language at matriculation standard or equivalent, such as a native-speaking ability. Consequently, there will only be a maximum of 10% of graduates who can be employed as primary school foreign language teachers for the state's government, catholic and independent primary schools. This low number of candidates does not satisfactorily fill the increasing number of primary LOTE teaching positions in Tasmanian schools and thus represents a concern to those stakeholders seeking to increase the pool of LOTE teachers in the state. top

Factors impacting on foreign language learning within non face-to-face programs

Human groups making contact and needing to speak with each other necessitated the learning of languages and it has been since the development of urban civilisations that '...there has been a need to make provision for the teaching of other languages' (White, 1988, p. 7). In the 20^th Century, face-to-face teaching using approaches such as the grammar translation, audio-lingual or more recently communicative methods have predominated in Australian secondary programs. These have been transmission models: the teacher who possesses the knowledge or skills, transfers the language content (grammar, vocabulary and structure rules) to the student. As changes occur in what we know about learning per se, that is, recognising learners '...bring various learning styles to the foreign language classroom' (Met & Galloway, 1992, p. 867), changes also occur in how foreign languages are taught.

Information technology using computers (henceforth termed IT) came to the fore in the 1990s. IT is acknowledged as a rich resource for all contemporary classrooms. Foreign language classrooms utilising IT can offer learners '...large amounts of material on language, literature and culture in the form of tutorials, games, lectures and contextualised exercises using video, audio and text...' (Felix, 1998, p. 18). CD-ROMs are just one of many tools where multimedia text (compound electronic programs consisting of textual, acoustic and visual data) can aid the language learning process and instruct, adding a new dimension to learning. Students can work alone, in pairs or in larger groups (Felix, 1998, p. 18). In many of the packages available, students can work at their own level and pace, using a variety of resources and skills. Various programs have recognised the value of getting language learners involved in 'meaningful, contextual tasks', involving problem solving and decision making (Hagan, 1993, p. 13).

Foreign language teachers are becoming more familiar with IT resources which can carry out a multitude of tasks quickly and easily: managing ‘…diverse sources such as newspapers, video footage, images of artworks, or radio broadcasts' as well or better than a teacher can (Hagan, 1993, p. 54). Felix (1998, p. 18) mentions the 'impossibly tall order' of teachers readily making available so many items at once: on the other hand CD-ROM and the Internet make these provisions easily. Multimedia texts for foreign language learning such as that found in CD-ROM packages can include dictionaries, reference materials and word processing tools to scaffold the language learning process. Many researchers have noted the capacities of this technology. 'The potential for combining sound pictures and the written word in multimedia applications...' makes this a very powerful and diverse technology (Hagan, 1993, p. 54). Hagan describes the abilities of multimedia text provision succinctly as follows:

Such multimedia text allows a wide range of images and sounds, facility to interact with the material, feedback to various degrees, record-keeping and the beauty of self-pacing (Kubanek-German, 1998, p. 202). Self-pacing is related closely to 'learner autonomy' and 'self-instruction' (White, 1995, p. 208). Underlying this concept is the constructivist paradigm of education, where teachers facilitate learning and learners construct new knowledge and concepts, building on previous concepts.

Littlewood's (1996) conceptual framework considers four aspects of learner autonomy to be at the heart of foreign language learning: skills, knowledge, confidence and motivation. These four aspects are discussed in more detail below. top

Skills

There is a question about whether autonomous learners, those who successfully operate using the self-pacing learning strategy, can increase not only their foreign language proficiencies specificially, but also their general language awareness. General language awareness is '...a person's sensitivity to and conscious awareness of the nature of language... and... knowledge about language' (Little, 1997, p. 93). The use of CD-ROM foreign language learning software and its relation to self-pacing is also reported in recent Danish research (Dam and Thomsen, cited in Little, 1997, p. 101). Knowledge about language and students taking responsibility for the management of learning is important for this type of learning, and has appeared in the Australian language curriculum literature within the learning-how-to-learn goals of the Australian language levels guidelines (Vale, Scarino and McKay, 1994).

Cotterall (1995, p. 195-196) defines autonomy as where learners possess 'tactics' to cope with and negotiate the learning material. These tactics are '...setting goals, choosing materials and tasks, planning practice opportunities and monitoring and evaluating progress'. Learners will display these tactics to varying degrees due to learner differences. Confident, independent learners utilise teacher feedback, building on their prior learning. With a greater understanding of these issues and factors in the learning process, learner autonomy can be better achieved with language teachers empowering learners to take charge of their own learning and develop successful learning strategies.

A self-access system is suggested when a learning context requires a teacher substitute in a face-to-face situation (Little, 1993: 30). Management of the self-access learning system will comprise any of the following: a good theory (a clear set of general criteria for the learning program); objectives and needs; materials; study techniques; organisation; monitoring and evaluation. Financial, time and space constraints must also be kept in mind. The learner needs to be eased into the self-access situation.

However, notwithstanding the strengths of the role of IT in education, there is evidence that computer technology is not a universal panacea or complete substitute for a teacher. Fewer than 20% of adults, for example, ever get very far in autonomous technology-based learning without any tutorial support (Hagan, 1993, p. 2) and support tutorials are essential (Hagan, 1993, p. 14). Learners also need to have an awareness of ‘…some of the factors that influence the learning process, eg. mother tongue interference, translation, affective factors, learning vocabulary’ (Dickinson, 1992, p. 45). Other research suggests that the classroom and the teacher should never be out of the picture in foreign language learning (Murray & Barnes, 1998, p. 251) and research literature is not advising a complete hand-over of the teaching load to the software tool. Hagan states, ‘Technology, on its own, is not enough... Hi-tech equipment is no substitute for good learning tasks, course content and enthusiastic teaching’ (1993, p. 11).

Yet CD-ROM language learning software can include learner training techniques in the program design. Such learning involves the students being ‘…cognitively and affectively active in the learning process’ (Dickinson, 1992, p. 37). The learning manager, whether that be an IT tool, an outside teacher, or the learners themselves, must help the learner with such strategies such as problem identification awareness and self evaluation (Dickinson, 1992, p. 40-41). If the learning manager legitimises independence, ensures success, and helps the learner develop learning techniques and a knowledge about language, learners can then make informed choices about the what, how, why, when and where of their learning (Dickinson, 1992, p. 13).

The group of learners who have the greatest need of training are those setting out to learn a language from a home-based course who have not previously experienced success at their school foreign language learning (Dickinson, 1992, p. 13). Many learners in this category would benefit from well-designed, gently graded and finely focussed language awareness work, talking about the language as well as in the language (Dickinson, 1992, pp. 14 and 37). A period of orientation about autonomous learning (Cotterall, 1995, p. 195) will provide training and preparation in order to enhance the probability of successful autonomous language learners. This may involve putting an emphasis on modeling learning skills (Crabbe, 1993, p. 443). The multimedia text (CD-ROM) software will also need to provide for these aspects.

Harris (1997) suggested a training cycle be implemented, including these self-management aspects for learners of foreign languages: awareness raising, modeling, action planning (goal setting) and extensive practice. White had found that '...self-management strategies... appear to be pivotal in the development of a more autonomous approach to language learning' (White, 1995, p. 219).

Effective language learners are noted in the research literature as being capable of identifying the learning objective currently being pursued by the teacher. 'They know what to learn and how to formulate their own learning objectives…’ (Dickinson, 1992, p. 1). However, students' 'learning-how-to-learn' skills which are inextricably linked with autonomous, self-paced learning, are not always enhanced by such multimedia teaching tools, as was found in the Hong Kong project (Klassen et al, 1998; Detaramani & Chan, 1999). The Hong Kong study found that students perceived that CD-ROM material did not allow them to develop their learning-how-to-learn strategies. The question arises as to what components the computer courses did not contain that caused this perception in students.

Met & Galloway's review of the literature on foreign language curriculum (1992, p. 884) concludes with the following statement:

Following this line of thought, curriculum developers and teachers would be best versed in the benefits of KAL and learning-how-to-learn skills themselves, before ensuring the next generation of learners are versed in this too. top

Knowledge

The second aspect considered necessary (Littlewood, 1996) for learner autonomy is knowledge. Within the knowledge base of second language teachers, five content domains are identified by Richards (1997) as forming the core: '...general teaching skills, language proficiency, subject matter knowledge, pedagogical reasoning and decision-making' (p. 225). One or a mixture of these content domains of language knowledge is likely to be the motivational component for students learning a foreign language. Some students will be interested in the grammar aspect of the foreign language, and other students will have an interest in the culture - all students have different needs. Dickinson reports that the socio-psychological school of thought on motivation suggests that '...learners with an interest in interacting with such speakers... [are] likely to be more successful in learning the target language...' (Dickinson, 1995, p. 167). In fact, motivation specifically for foreign language learning multimedia textual software such as CD-ROM based learning, is affected by what Murray & Barnes' term the 'wow' factor: '... extremely positive and extremely negative initial reactions in the user... towards a software package' (1998, p. 250). However, Felix's research (1998, p. 20) suggested that the incentive may be experiential learning, '...involving users (1) in a kind of quest with a meaningful goal, (2) in real interaction in authentic or virtual true-to-life settings or (3) in the production of the materials themselves'.

It is widely acknowledged that cultural knowledge is also an important part of foreign language education (Byram, 1988; Crozet & Liddicoat, 1997). Zephir states '...'It is imperative for language teachers to possess a certain knowledge of the social phenomena that pertain to the language they teach. Hence, one of the responsibilities of foreign language teacher-education programs ought to be the inclusion of sociolinguistic material in the curriculum' (1994, p. 57). Culture studies have been the motivation of some learners to learn a language (Ho, 1998, p. 179). In a study of Taiwanese pupils learning English, culture studies '...can be seen as a direct force in pupil orientation, attitudes, and motivation towards learning English', although '...not the total panacea for demotivation'. The presence of cultural material in the multimedia text and in the design of the CD-ROM being considered in this study would be one possible motivator in some contexts (Little, 1993: 19), although ascertaining that the software does not merely present '...hype and glitz' (Johnson, 1998, p. 53) is an important consideration. top

Confidence and Motivation

The final two aspects considered necessary by Littlewood (1996) are less researched. Little (1993, p. 16) believes that the literature existing on the role of motivation in language learning is ‘…largely speculative in nature’. Ho (1998) refers to Keller's motivation theory: that motivation has four determinants; interest, relevance, expectancy and reward/punishment. It is perhaps nothing more than assumption that '...learners' active and independent involvement in their own learning [autonomy] increases motivation to learn and consequently increases learning effectiveness' (Dickinson, 1995, p. 165), as there is no firm evidence that this personality trait correlates with measures of success in foreign language learning (Little, 1993, p. 16).

Considering the above literature which counts motivation as a key aspect in the development of learner autonomy in the language learning process, it is logical to place the learning manager as the facilitator of the learning process (that is, either the teacher or the CD-ROM software), to provide the metaphorical 'carrot at the end of the stick': that is, a motivational component for students' successful learning of a foreign language. CD-ROM language learning packages can allow a learner to self-pace their learning and should contain instructional capacities including the aim of skilling students with general language awareness and language learning skills. top

A conceptual model

One way of summarising the relationship between learner autonomy, motivation and learner success, '...is that autonomous learners become more highly motivated and that autonomy leads to better, more effective work' (Dickinson, 1995, p. 165). This is also a valid concept for language learning. The following conceptual model (see Figure A) for language learners achieving success in their language learning tasks may be represented simply in this continuum:

Figure A: a conceptual model for learner success, adapted from Dickinson (1995).

If the language learner is learning autonomously, prepared for the learning process by being equipped with learning-how-to-learn and knowledge-about-language skills, and there is a motivational component either within the software or in the wider context, there is also more chance of achieving success in language learning and achieving learning goals. This, in turn, will enhance chances of achieving even greater learner autonomy and motivation.

It appears that the multimedia text within a tightly-managed, face-to-face program may be a better way for students to self-pace their foreign language learning, perhaps utilising the strategies uncovered in the Hong Kong self-access English language learning program (Klassen et al, 1998, p. 56). In fact, the ideal for inclusion in a foreign language learning program, summarised from the research literature and from the findings of this small study, would be: a good textbook; face-to-face teaching; interactive tasks using information technology; contextualised practice of structures using multimedia texts; and meaningful activities based on video and audio using multimedia texts (Felix, 1998, p. 21).

Where context determines that a teacher is not present, language learning training must be provided by the instructional tool. CD-ROMs purporting to instruct in languages are not exempt from this need. There must be in-built incentives in the content and processes provided in foreign language programs, including within the CD-ROM multimedia text software. top

Searching for key components to enhance language learning

This study sought firstly to appraise the multimedia text software (21 CD-ROM) to ascertain their suitability for foreign language learning of pre-service teachers in phase 2 (Harbon, 1999-2000, p. 33-34). (See Appendix A for a complete list of CD-ROM appraised). Secondly, perceptions were sought of pre-service teachers training to be generalist primary teachers who were motivated to try and add some foreign language skills to their teaching repertoire.

Initially a framework for appraising the CD-ROM software was established, including considerations of aspects of the research of Murray & Barnes (1998, p. 251) and their list of questions to evaluate such software. The themes considered in this study fell under the following headings: materials included in kit; ease of use of software; style of production; suitability of program to 'instruct' future language teachers; evidence of cultural links; estimated time to complete; inclusion of tasks for 4 macro-skills; organisational focus (Vale et al., 1994); costs; and, nature of assessment tasks. It is not within the scope of this paper to include the findings of how the twenty-one individual CD-ROM rated against the criteria set, suffice to say that the researcher deemed some more suitable than others for the aims of the study. Findings for Phase 1 of the study were not dissimilar to Murray & Barnes' (1998, p. 259) who found '...some gems amongst a lot of mediocrity'. Like the research of Felix (1998, p. 11), indications were that the CD-ROM provided '...substance and general user-friendliness'.

Acknowledging that it takes a certain type of person to learn, and especially speak, a foreign language entirely without face-to-face interaction with others, the challenge was put to a year cohort of approximately eighty pre-service teachers in their add-on, non-assessed course of LOTE Curriculum study to take up this multimedia text (CD-ROM) based foreign language learning. This was a non-compulsory option, intended explicitly as an 'optional extra'. Pre-service teachers who applied to trial this software made application via e-mail, variously reporting their desire to begin or refresh (Felix, 1998, p. 9) their language learning and enhance their job prospects.

Fourteen preservice teachers elected to borrow one or more of the short-listed CD-ROMs in the foreign language of their choice and embark on an autonomous program of language study. These were students who could prove that their study timetable allowed regular time periods throughout the week to devote to the task. In their e-mail message requesting selection to participate in the project, eight mentioned that they had learned the LOTE to a certain stage at school, four mentioned that a LOTE may enhance their job prospects, seven mentioned personal reasons for wanting the opportunity. These included teaching own young child; to use with clients in part-time job; to experiment with own learning style; two stating that such an opportunity is rarely offered and two mentioning the need to experience what their future students will experience. Also, as the researcher was aware that such IT-based material would be of little use unless students could negotiate the basics of installing and manoeuvring around a program, the students also had to be competent in IT basics.

Over a period of ten weeks, pre-service teachers installed and worked through the programs of their choice, learning the target language to varying degrees of proficiency, and then appraised their own study and the software, replying to a survey. Two participants kept a reflective journal, chronicalling the 'ups and downs' of working with this CD-ROM software.

The survey required participants to provide their perceptions of various related issues according to a Likert-scale item structure. Five aspects of the issues were focused on: user-friendliness of software; motivation to learn a LOTE; self-pacing; CD-ROM as teaching tool; and, learner strategies (see Appendix B). Additionally, data were collected during informal interviews with the participants and in e-mail correspondence regarding their intentions in taking part, feedback during the learning period and participatory and learning outcomes. top

Perceptions of the pre-service teachers

With ten of the fourteen participants responding to the survey, the whole ten considered they had achieved successful learning, that is, had achieved their aims of beginning/refreshing their knowledge of the LOTE. These well-prepared motivated students were ready to learn and the CD-ROMs made it possible and enjoyable, one participant reporting such learning to be 'addictive' (NQ. 1999, pers. comm., 24 March). Major learning outcomes for participants were vocabulary building and development of listening comprehension skills. Two non-beginners reported the program being useful for recall and revision of the language.

The pre-service teachers generally found the CD-ROMs to be user friendly, with program material easy to use after installation. One participant mentioned that the simple navigation structure on the program allowed his/her concentration to remain on the language learning task, rather than be overtaken by a need to focus on the complicated manouevring experienced with other CD-ROM learning. (The findings of Phase 1 were similar, where the researcher completed initial appraisal on a number of characteristics to decide which CD-ROMs to suggest pre-service teachers use.) Yet not all the written accompanying notes were easy to follow and use. One of the two participants who kept an e-mail journal noted '...I was frustrated because there weren't enough instructions in the accompanying booklet for me to get straight to work...' (CA. 1999, pers. comm., 21 March). Another participant noted his particular need for face-to-face interaction with a tutor, just as was experienced in the literature reviewed earlier (NH. 1999, pers. comm., 17 May).

The CD-ROMs allowed self-pacing and the facility for learners to test their knowledge. Like the Noest study (1996), this study also found that pre-service teachers enjoyed the freedom of self-pacing their language learning and where the Noest study suggested '...that this freedom needed to be monitored carefully', the pre-service teachers here seemed to be also looking for that guidance when they commented that it be undertaken in a pair situation or with a native speaker to consolidate learning. Yet one teacher seemed to be lamenting the absence of a teacher figure in the process, stating

Vygotsky's notion of a zone of proximal development is a '...zone in which a learner cannot yet achieve an understanding of a new concept alone and requires the help from a teacher or a peer' (Evans et al., 1999, p. 8) scaffolding the learning process.

Two participants expressed disappointment that there was little requirement to speak or write, with 'click-on' options being very common in the 21 CD-ROM packages. Even when requiring learners to enter their own text, one participant reported there was no flexibility to give alternatives to the correct answers: the program only accepted certain answers in a certain structure.

One user would like to have been able to take the program from machine to machine. Without the program over a weekend period, there was little retention after the two day break. The CD-ROMs did not all allow mobility unless students had access to a high powered laptop computer, or the program was installed on more than one desktop computer.

Use was made of footage and audio of native speakers of the target languages in these CD-ROM programs, although one participant noted that lip movements in the footage of the native speakers was not synchronised with the audio. All respondents to the survey believed that the four macro-skills of language learning were attended to. Yet half of the respondents (N=5) did not believe that there was adequate opportunity to record, playback and revisit their attempts, comparing with examples provided on the CD-ROM. Four respondents did not believe that their learning-how-to-learn skills were catered for at all.

As regards the feedback to learners aspect, where computer assisted language learning is supposed to give '...unlimited feedback pinpointed to the specific grammatical errors made by the student' (Nagata, 1998, p. 23), the findings from this study indicate that pre-service teachers strongly believed in feedback in the assessment process, yet only five of the ten respondents indicated that the software was providing this highly valued aspect. Two participants reported being disappointed that they received no feedback on pronunciation: in an e-mail journal, one participant noted '...[o]ne problem is that there is no little voice to tell me how to pronounce them and I may only be learning to recognise the word and its meaning, not the proper pronunciation' (CA. 1999, pers. comm., 21 March).

One of the two students (from the total of ten respondents) who discontinued their self-paced CD-ROM language learning program reported timetable clashes and computer problems on her home computer which necessitated postponing her language refresher until the mid-year break (AS. 1999, pers. comm., 12 April). The other student discontinued due to work commitments. He purchased an audio course to be able to continue in his own time and had intentions of enrolling in adult education courses the following year (DP. 1999, pers. comm., 15 April).

Although motivation to use these programs was initially quite high for all participants, initial affection with the program for a few gradually decreased, although games continued to motivate others. Three participants reported being motivated by the game-like tasks throughout the program. In e-mail journal evaluations, one participant stated about games, '...I think they are a really effective way of learning without feeling like the focus is on learning this word or this phrase. In the process of playing the game, you DO [my emphasis] learn, or you can't play' (CA. 1999, pers. comm., 21 March).

Another participant reported his motivation remained high due to the interactivity of the program: another believed that as devotion of a regular time is required, the learner must be truly motivated, or have a deep desire or a practical urgent need to remain motivated. This in turn becomes a gentle pressure for the learner to keep devoting time and energy into this task. In this respect, according to the participant, the multimedia tool becomes no different to learning foreign languages through any other medium. A suggestion from one participant was that such motivation might be achievable if pairs undertake a learning contract together: '...I think self-paced learning of a language might be better if addressed with a partner - for added support and feedback' (survey response).

As regards the multimedia tool attending to presenting the cultural aspects of the language, four of the responding pre-service teachers believed that the CD-ROM were helpful in allowing them to tap into the target cultural aspects. Two felt that their CD-ROM helped them learn about the non-verbal aspects of the language. Two participants reported being motivated to see footage of daily life scenes from the target country or thoroughly approving of the use of a variety of native speakers presented by the CD-ROM. Two others reported that the CD-ROM used did not provide sufficient cultural background or were disappointed at their being no attempt to convey non-verbal aspects of the target language. Another participant would like to have been given an indication of the 'native-like' speech levels of that particular CD-ROM. She said,

In an informal interview with five of the participants, several issues were mentioned as being 'keys' to success in learning a language via this means: these included setting specific times in one's own weekly schedule (PW. 1999, pers. comm., 12 May); having a good reason for prioritising such language study (PW. 1999, pers. comm., 12 May); and, mandating a link to the required assessment task in the enrolled unit (DS. 1999, pers. comm., 12 May). As regards key components in the CD-ROM software design, participants reported as necessary:

• a built-in component ensuring students' high levels of motivation (One participant reported having developed a passion for the music threading through the background of the CD-ROM which lead to her seeking out more information on this music type on the Internet) (NQ. 1999, pers. comm., 12 May);
• a built-in requirement for the student to use the language learned, '...to make it stick' (DS. 1999, pers. comm., 12 May);
• a partner to share the learning process; and,
• a 'carrot' or a series of 'carrots', '...so there's incentive to go on to the next stage' (NH. 1999, pers. comm., 17 May).

That same student who mentioned the carrot, added that the best kind of 'carrot' might be a story. A story weaving through the program, offering different pathways and different options to take the story in one direction or another, would present an intrigue which would motivate many age levels. Another suggestion was that there should be built-in encouragement for students not only to work on text provided, but to develop their own text. Click-on options, where all text was provided and students chose language options by clicking on buttons, did not provide such opportunities. top

Conclusions

Although this project was small and limited in scope and design, a number of interesting issues emerged. Certainly these are introductory understandings of pre-service teachers' perceptions about self-pacing their foreign language learning. The CD-ROM resources taught students certain aspects of the language, four of the fourteen participants believing that those aspects were important for their language teaching competencies and proficiencies in the future (CA, DS, FC, AB. 1999, pers. comm., March). However, participants felt that there was insufficient 'instruction' on cultural or non-verbal aspects of the languages, both considered by these pre-service teachers as important and motivational: one respondent reporting the need for 'a carrot' built into the instructional design of the software.

It has been widely acknowledged that more than pure chance guides multimedia text resource designers to develop 'good' foreign language learning programs (Peterson, 1998, p. 358; Detaramani & Chan, 1999, p. 147) and such design of software requires substantial efforts in time and planning. Whether the developers of such software can be accused of '...linguistically and pedagogically naive dabblings' (McCarthy, 1992: 5), merely positioning '...some foreign words interestingly on the screen with some background music' (Murray & Barnes, 1998: 251) will be debated until more research data is collected.

Further research could look at the meta-cognitive strategies used by this group of pre-service teachers to ensure success in their foreign language learning, a view encouraged by other research (White, 1995, p. 219). Research could be carried out to explore the ideal model for pre-service teachers self-pacing their work and the suitability of components found by Felix (1998, p. 21) to comprise a complete course (good text-book; face-to-face teaching; interactive and contextualised web work; meaningful activities for sound and video and authentic interchanges with native speakers).

These pre-service teachers who aimed to add foreign languages to their teaching repertoires in the future, were aware of two things: firstly, that the teaching of language entails knowing about the culture and needing to know about the target culture before working with their own students was a priority for them; secondly, that a motivational component should have been internal or external to the program. The CD-ROMs appraised were not rated as overly successful in either of these aspects: whether the ones that rated highly were designed by 'aware' planners could be explored by further research. What form these 'cybercarrots' could take and how autonomous self-pacing learners could access these must also be investigated. top

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Appendix A

List of Software Appraised in Phase 1

1. Accent Duo German	1989-1995, Accent Software International Ltd, Watford, Hertfordshire, UK.
2. Learn German Now	1997, Transparent Language Inc., New Hampshire, USA
3. Sprachkurs Deutsch	1998, Verlag Moritz Diesterweg GmbH & Col, Frankfurt, Germany. 1998, EuropPlus+ Multimedia, Gdansk.
4. Pip Teaches German	1997, Smarty Pants Publishing Pty. Ltd., Australia Multimedia Enterprises Ltd., Scholastic Australia Pty. Ltd., Gosford, NSW.
5. German	1997, Learnware, Philadelphia, PA, USA
6. Talk to Me, German	1996, Globalink Inc. Fairfax, VA & Auralog, S.A.
7. Power Japanese	1991-1994, Bayware Inc., USA & Reckon Software, Australia.
8. The Language Market Japanese, Stage A	1997, Goprint, Woolloongabba, Qld.
9. Michio Teaches Japanese	1997, Smarty Pants Publishing Pty. Ltd., Australia Multimedia Enterprises Ltd., & Meaghan Bell and Angela Lambart, Scholastic Australia Pty. Ltd., Gosford, NSW.
10. Kantaro, Volume 1	1996, Macquarie University, Sydney and Fujitsu Australia Ltd.
11. Japanese Master	1997, University of New South Wales, NSW Department of School Education and Japan Language Foundation, with IBS Info Tech
12. Speak Fluent French	1995-1996, Auralog, S.A.
13. Claudine Teaches French	1997, Smarty Pants Publishing Pty. Ltd., Australia Multimedia Enterprises Ltd., Scholastic Australia Pty. Ltd., Gosford, NSW.
14. Accent Duo (French)	1989-1995, Accent Software International Ltd, Watford, Hertfordshire, UK.
15. The French Experience	(2 CD set) (no date) BBC, UK.
16. Global French	1996, Systems Integrated Research, Derbyshire, UK.
17. Aventure A Paris	1997, TLC-Edusoft and Dragon Systems, France.
18. Hebat! Learn Indonesian	1998, Curriculum Corporation, Australia.
19. Interactive Indonesian	Ian White, Longman, Australia.
20. Bahasa Indonesia	1997, Courage Software, Western Australia.
21. Budi Teaches Indonesian	1997, Smarty Pants Publishing Pty. Ltd., Australia Multimedia Enterprises Ltd., Scholastic Australia Pty. Ltd., Gosford, NSW.

Appendix B

Survey: self-paced CD-ROM LOTE Learning Software

I would appreciate you taking 15 minutes to respond to these statements and questions regarding your perceptions and successes working with self-paced CD-ROM LOTE learning software.Lesley Harbon

Relate these responses to the CD-ROM you had THE MOST exposure to

Key:

Strongly Agree - SA, Agree - A, Neutral - N, Disagree - D, Strongly Disagree - SD, Not Applicable - NA

A. About the user-friendliness of the CD-ROM:

1. The CD-ROM provided in-built support.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

2. The CD-ROM was easy to install.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

3. The CD-ROM was easy to navigate/manouvre through the various sections.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

4. Overall, the CD-ROM was easy to use.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

5. The accompanying notes supplied with the CD-ROM were useful.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

B. About your motivation towards using the CD-ROM to learn/revisit a LOTE:

6. The CD-ROM improved my motivation by putting me in control of the learning.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

7. The CD-ROM removed my inhibitions about LOTE learning.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

8. The CD-ROM had a style of production which encouraged me to use it.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

9. The CD-ROM made learning the language enjoyable.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

10. I consider I had success learning a foreign language using the CD-ROM.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

11. I was well-prepared to embark on learning/revisiting a foreign language using a self-paced program.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

C. About the self-paced aspect of the CD-ROM:

12. The CD-ROM enabled me to work and study at my own pace and in my own time.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

13. The CD-ROM provided me with mobility, learning at home or at university.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

14. The CD-ROM provided me with opportunities to test my skills and knowledge.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

15. The time in which to complete the CD-ROM was achievable.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

16. The CD-ROM provided me with sufficient feedback to guide and evaluate my learning.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

17. I believe it is an important feature that a foreign language learning CD-ROM provides feedback and assessment for the user.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

D. About the teaching aspect of the CD-ROM:

18. The CD-ROM helped me to learn certain parts of a foreign language

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

19. The CD-ROM helped me to learn about the target culture.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

20. The CD-ROM was suitable for teaching me a foreign language (from the perspective of a future LOTE teacher).

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

21. The CD-ROM provided me with access to socio-cultural aspects of language e.g. non-verbal behaviours.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

E. About the learning strategies used in the CD-ROM:

22. The CD-ROM provided access to native speakers.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

23. The CD-ROM provided instantaneous response and renewal of models for repetition.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

24. The CD-ROM enabled me to record and playback my own version to compare it with the model.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

25. The CD-ROM encouraged development of 'learn-how-to-learn' strategies.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

26. The CD-ROM enabled me to 'role play' with others.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

27. The CD-ROM enabled me to focus on speaking, listening, reading, writing, individually or in any combination.

SA	A	N	D	SN	NA
?	?	?	?	?	?

F. Please add any other comments as regards what helped or hindered you attaining success with your self-paced foreign language learning using CD-ROM. What, for you, was THE KEY to making this a good learning tool?

About the author

Lesley Harbon
Faculty of Education
University of Tasmania
Australia

E-mail: Lesley.Harbon@utas.edu.au